Social Determinants of Health: High School Completion Programs

This CPSTF finding is based on evidence from a meta-analysis published in 2011 (Wilson et al., search period 1985-2010/2011). An updated search for studies published between 2010 and August 2012 identified 10 additional studies, which had results consistent with those from the meta-analysis.

The systematic review was conducted on behalf of the CPSTF by a team of specialists in systematic review methods, and in research, practice, and policy related to the use of educational interventions for the promotion of health equity.

High school completion is an established predictor of long-term health. In the United States, a high school education can add about 7 years to one’s life expectancy.

The proportion of students who complete high school varies markedly by race and ethnicity. In 2010, 83% of whites, 66% of blacks, 71% of Hispanics, 94% of Asian/Pacific Islanders, and 69% of American Indian/Alaska Natives completed high school.

High school completion rates are also associated with family income, and those from the lowest quartile are the least likely to have completed their education.

Detailed results from the systematic review are available in the CPSTF Finding and Rationale Statement [PDF – 376 kB].

Overall Effectiveness

• High-risk student populations exposed to high school completion programs were more likely to complete high school when compared with control groups.
  • Wilson et al. reported an 8.5 median percentage point increase in the rate of high school completion by students in intervention programs compared with students in the control conditions (317 study arms).
  • Evidence from the updated search showed a 6.5 median percentage point increase (10 studies).
• Pregnant or parent student populations exposed to an intervention were more likely to complete high school when compared with control groups.
  • Wilson et al. reported an 11.7 median percentage point increase in the rate of high school completion by students in intervention programs compared with students in the control conditions (51 study arms).
  • The updated search did not find studies specific to this population.

Types of High School Completion Programs

This review assessed 11 different types of high school completion programs. They are listed below in approximate order of effectiveness. Economic evidence is presented separately.

Vocational Training

Program Description

Vocational training prepares students for specific occupations. In addition to participating in the vocational curriculum, students commonly take a portion of the regular academic curriculum, participate in academic remediation, and learn life skills. Training may include occupational internships outside of school settings. Programs also may include training-related support services (such as transportation assistance and childcare), and assistance with job placement.

Effectiveness

Students who received vocational training had high school completion rates that were, on average, 15.9 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (86.2% vs. 70.3%, respectively; 51 study arms).

Alternative Schooling

Program Description

Alternative schools are designed to provide educational and other services to students whose needs are not adequately addressed in traditional schools. Alternative schools often include students who have been expelled from regular schools and students who have quit school or seem likely to do so, including students who are pregnant or have children.

Alternative schools are commonly situated away from traditional high schools and offer small classes and intense remediation for problems students encountered in regular schooling. They are often established in low-income communities, and may offer social services, such as childcare and support groups to address challenging issues. Teachers in alternative schools may act as mentors as well as instructors.

Effectiveness

Students who attended alternative schools had high school completion rates that were, on average, 15.5 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (69.3% vs. 53.8% respectively; 30 study arms).

Social-Emotional Skills Training

Program Description

The social-emotional skills training most commonly used aims to increase emotional self-awareness and regulation, improve self-esteem and attitudes about school, or prevent drug use. One approach to social-emotional skills training cognitive behavioral therapy is used to address counterproductive emotions, behaviors, and cognitive processes. It commonly combines stress management or relaxation techniques, cognitive exploration (including correction of inaccurate cognitions), and the reframing of counterproductive cognitions and behaviors.

Some programs train students who are pregnant or have children to be able to teach cognitive behavioral management to their children.

Effectiveness

Students who received social-emotional skills training had high school completion rates that were, on average, 13.7 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (86.0% vs. 72.3%, respectively; 12 study arms).

College-Oriented Programming

Program Description

These programs help high school students prepare for college by providing remedial courses, college guidance counseling to help with school selection and application, assistance with scholarship applications, and in some cases actual scholarships.

Effectiveness

Students who participated in college-oriented programs had high school completion rates that were, on average, 10.4 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (91.3% vs. 80.9%, respectively; 25 study arms).

Mentoring and Counseling

Program Description

These programs assign trained adult mentors or counselors to help students focus on their school work or career objectives and deal with personal issues. Mentors and counselors are expected to work within the context and framework of students’ home and community environments. Mentors work closely with students, encouraging respect and personal growth as they progress toward high school completion and, in some cases, college. Mentors are most often volunteers who work with students throughout high school to help them graduate and get into college. Some programs that help students prepare for college also provide financial support for college.

Effectiveness

Students who received mentoring and counseling had high school completion rates that were, on average, 9.4 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (93.1% vs. 83.7%, respectively; 27 study arms).

Supplemental Academic Services

Program Description

In these interventions, services such as remedial education, tutoring, or homework assistance are provided to students who have demonstrated academic difficulties in school or who may be at risk for having academic difficulties. Several federal programs fund these types of interventions. The CPSTF has separate findings for Out-of-School-Time-Academic Programs (reading-focused, math-focused, general, minimal academic content).

Effectiveness

Students who received supplemental academic services had high school completion rates that were, on average, 8.8 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (89.8% vs. 81.0%, respectively; 28 study arms).

School and Class Restructuring

Program Description

Schools may be reorganized with the objective of improving school engagement and learning. Reorganization may include the creation of small learning communities, career academies designed to orient student learning to particular occupational fields, block schedules (i.e., longer class periods that increase concentrated learning and decrease transition time), or class size reduction that allows more attention to students’ individual needs.

Effectiveness

Students whose schools or classes were restructured had high school completion rates that were, on average, 8.3 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (91.9% vs. 83.6%, respectively; 105 study arms).

Multiservice Packages

Program Description

Multiservice packages combine more than one of the intervention types described in this review. Most often, multiservice packages are comprehensive programs that include an academic component, vocational training, and case management. Some interventions also provide diverse services that may include housing, health care, homework assistance, guidance, counseling, recreational opportunities, or enrichment activities such as access to performing arts.

Effectiveness among high-risk populations

Students who received this intervention had high school completion rates that were, on average, 7.7 percentage points greater than those in the comparison populations (89.3% vs. 81.6%, respectively; 23 study arms).

Effectiveness among students who were pregnant or had children

Students who received this intervention had high school completion rates that were, on average, 11.0 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (43.0% vs. 32.0%, respectively; 47 study arms).

Attendance Monitoring and Contingencies

Program Description

In these programs, trained staff monitor students’ attendance in school and provide mentoring services to increase attendance and school participation. Staff also review students’ academic performance, provide feedback to students, and update parents on students’ progress.

Staff also may mentor students, model use of problem-solving skills, make themselves available for students to discuss personal concerns, or work with students to increase their level of school engagement. Students in attendance monitoring programs may receive rewards or “contingencies” such as cash awards for their attendance and participation in school.

Effectiveness among high-risk populations

Students who received this intervention had high school completion rates that were, on average, 6.7 percentage points greater than those in the comparison populations (80.1% vs. 73.4%, respectively; 26 study arms).

Effectiveness among students who were pregnant or had children

Students who received this intervention had high school completion rates that were, on average, 12.4 percentage points greater than those in comparison populations (30.4% vs. 18.0%, respectively; 39 study arms).

Community Service

Program Description

Students participating in these interventions plan and carry out community service projects. Interventions are commonly coupled with a life-skills curriculum.

Effectiveness

Students who participated in community service programs had high school completion rates that were, on average, 6.3 percentage points greater than those in the comparison populations (97.4 vs. 91.0%, respectively; 24 study arms).

Case Management

Program Description

Case management connects students and families with appropriate services and monitors students’ progress.

Effectiveness

Students who participated in a case management intervention had high school completion rates that were, on average, 3.6 percentage points greater than those in the comparison populations (92.9 vs. 96.5%, respectively; 17 study arms).

Detailed results from the systematic review are available in the CPSTF Finding and Rationale Statement [PDF – 376 kB].

Overall findings showed interventions to increase high school completion produced substantial economic benefits to government and society.

The economic review included 47 studies (search period January 1985 October 2012). Studies reported program costs (37 studies), program benefits measured as lifetime benefits per additional high school graduate (10 studies), cost-benefit analyses (22 studies), and cost-effectiveness analyses (37 studies). All economic values are reported in 2012 U.S. dollars.

• Lifetime benefits per additional high school graduate from a governmental perspective ranged from $187,000 to $240,000 (4 studies) and benefits from a societal perspective ranged from $347,000 to $718,000 (6 studies).
  • Benefits were measured by lifetime economic benefits to society and to government per additional high school graduate, including productivity loss averted, and healthcare, crime, and welfare costs averted.
  • Some benefit analyses also included indirect education cost the extra costs to families and school systems when students are motivated to continue their education and stay in school longer.

Vocational Training

• Estimated cost per student ranged from $2,100 to $10,500 (2 studies).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $30,300 to $69,500 (2 studies).
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 2.9:1 and 6.8:1 (2 analyses).

Alternative Schooling

• Estimated cost per student ranged from $1,700 to $12,900 (4 studies).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $21,100 to $322,800 (4 studies).
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 0.6:1 and 1.6:1 (2 analyses).

Social-Emotional Skills Training

• Estimated cost per student ranged from $1,100 to $7,200 (2 studies).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $8,600 to $178,800 (2 studies).
• No cost-benefit analyses were identified for this type of program.

College-Oriented Programming

• Estimated cost per student ranged from $3,400 to $5,800 (3 studies).
• Estimated costs per additional high school graduate of 30,600 and $265,700 (2 studies); one additional study reported an infinitely high* estimate because the program was found to be ineffective.
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 0.8:1 (1 analysis).

Mentoring and Counseling

• Estimated cost per student ranged from $600 to $4,500 (2 studies).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $11,200 to $90,400 (2 studies).
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 2.1:1 (1 analysis).

Supplemental Academic Services

• Estimated cost per student ranged from$800 to $14,100 (2 studies).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate of $48,300 (1 study), and another study reported an infinitely high* estimate because the program was found to be ineffective.
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 4.2:1 (1 analysis).

School and Class Restructuring

• Estimated cost per student ranged from $2,200 to $16,000 (9 studies).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $20,100 to $145,100 (9 studies).
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios ranging from 1.3:1 to 9.3:1 (8 analyses).

Multiservice Packages

• Among high-risk populations:
  • Estimated cost per student ranged from$4,100 to $22,500 (4 studies).
  • Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $56,500 to $131,100 (3 studies), and one study reported an infinitely high* estimate because the program was found to be ineffective.
  • Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 1.6:1 and 2.8:1 (2 analyses).
• Among students who were pregnant or had children:
  • Estimated cost per student ranged from $14,800 to $17,800 (3 studies).
  • Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $67,200 to $194,600 (3 studies).
  • Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 1.1:1 and 1.2:1 (2 analyses).

Attendance Monitoring and Contingencies

• Among high-risk populations:
  • Estimated cost per student ranged from $2,800 to $5,700 (3 studies).
  • Estimated cost per additional high school graduate ranged from $33,600 to $70,900 (3 studies).
  • Estimated benefit-to-cost ratios of 2.6:1 and 5.6:1 (2 analyses).
• Among students who were pregnant or had children:
  • Estimated cost per student was $300 (1 study).
  • Estimated cost per additional high school graduate $99,800 (1 study).
  • No cost-benefit analyses were identified for this type of program.

Community Service

• Estimated cost per student was $300 (1 study).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate was $3,000 (1 study).
• Estimated benefit-to-cost ratio of 68.2:1 (1 analysis).

Case Management

• Estimated cost per student was $22,800 (1 study).
• Estimated cost per additional high school graduate was infinitely high* because the program was found to be ineffective (1 study).
• No cost-benefit analyses were identified for this type of program.

* When an economic study estimated program cost, but determined the program to be ineffective (i.e., an estimated effect of zero), the cost per additional graduate was reported as infinitely high (i.e., program cost/0 effect).

Based on this review, the CPSTF finding should be applicable to high-risk, pregnant and parent student populations in high-income countries as well as male and female students of all racial and ethnic backgrounds.

Program effectiveness differed on various dimensions:

• Programs implemented in school settings were more effective than those implemented outside of school in community venues.
• Well-implemented programs were more effective than those that reported implementation problems.
• Among pregnant or parent student populations, programs were more effective for older as compared with younger students.

The CPSTF identified several areas that have limited information. Additional research and evaluation could help answer the following questions and fill remaining gaps in the evidence base. (What are evidence gaps?)

• In multiservice packages, how does each component contribute to program effectiveness?
• How effective are these programs at increasing rates of GED completion?
• What is the optimal duration for each type of program?
• How effective are these programs with students in institutions (e.g., prisons, residential settings for various forms of treatment)?

• Interventions were conducted in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
• In 75% of the studies, most students were from racial or ethnic minorities.
• Most studies included students from predominantly low-income families.
• Males and females were equally represented in programs for high-risk populations; only females were included in programs for students who were pregnant or had children.

Hahn RA, Knopf JA, Wilson SJ, et al. Programs to increase high school completion: a Community Guide systematic health equity review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2015;48(5):599-608.

Qu S, Chattopadhyay SK, Hahn RA, Community Preventive Services Task Force. High School Completion Programs: A Community Guide Systematic Economic Review. Journal of Public Health Management & Practice. 2016;22(3):E47–56.

Community Preventive Services Task Force. High school completion programs recommended to improve health equity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2015;48(5):609-12.

Hahn RA, Chattopadhyay SK. Linking studies to assess the life expectancy associated with eighth grade school achievement. Preventive Medicine Reports. 2019;16(100980). doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100980.

Mackenbach JP. Commentary: Education programs are likely to improve health, but will they improve health equity?. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2015;48(5):e5-6.

Effectiveness Review

Analytic Framework

When starting an effectiveness review, the systematic review team develops an analytic framework. The analytic framework illustrates how the intervention approach is thought to affect public health. It guides the search for evidence and may be used to summarize the evidence collected. The analytic framework often includes intermediate outcomes, potential effect modifiers, potential harms, and potential additional benefits.

Economic Review

No content is available for this section.

Effectiveness Review

A summary evidence table for this Community Guide review is not available because the CPSTF finding is based on the following published systematic review:

Wilson SJ, Tanner-Smith EE, Lipsey MW, Steinka-Fry K, Morrison J. Dropout prevention and intervention programs: Effects on school completion and dropout among school-aged children and youth. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2011.

Economic Review

Summary Evidence Tables – Economic Review

This Task Force finding is based on evidence from a meta-analysis published in 2011 (Wilson et al., search period 1985-2010/2011). An updated search for studies published between 2010 and August 2012 identified 10 additional studies, which had results consistent with those from the meta-analysis.

The number of studies and publications do not always correspond (e.g., a publication may include several studies, or one study may be explained in several publications).

Effectiveness Review

Studies from the Updated Search

Bloom HS, Thompson SL, Unterman R. Transforming the high school experience (Report). New York (NY): MDRC; 2010. Available at URL: http://www.mdrc.org/publication/transforming-high-school-experience .

Booker K, Sass TR, Gill B, Zimmer R. The effects of charter high schools on educational attainment. Journal of Labor Economics 2011;29(2):377-415.

Furgeson J, Gill B, Haimson J, Killewald A, McCullough M, Nichols-Barrer I, et al. Charter-school management organizations: diverse strategies and diverse student impacts. Princeton (NJ): Mathematica Policy Research, Inc; 2012.

Lee H-J, zg n-Koca SA, Cristol D. An analysis of high school transformation effort from an outcome perspective. Current Issues in Education 2011;14(1).

Landis RN, Reschly AL. An examination of compulsory school attendance ages and high school dropout and completion. Educational Policy 2011;25(5):719-61.

Porowski A, Passa A. The effect of Communities in Schools on high school dropout and graduation rates: results from a multiyear, school-level quasi-experimental study. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 2011;16(1):24-37.

Schwerdt G, West MR. The impact of alternative grade configurations on student outcomes through middle and high school. Journal of Public Economics 2013:97(C):308-26.

MacIver MA. The challenge of improving urban high school graduation outcomes: findings from a randomized study of dropout prevention efforts. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 2011;16(3):167-84.

Flores N, Chu H. How does size matter? The impact of the rise of small schools on Latinos and emergent bilinguals in New York City. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 2011;14(2):155-70.

Ford R, Frenette M, Nicholson C, Kwakye I, Hui TS-w, Hutchinson J, et al. Future to discover: Post-secondary impacts report. Ottawa (Canada): Social Research and Demonstration Corporation; 2012. Available at URL: http://www.srdc.org/publications/Future-to-Discover-FTD–Post-secondary-Impacts-Report-details.aspx .

Economic Review

Belfield CR, Levin HM. The economic losses from high school dropouts in California. University of California, Santa Barbara; 2007.

Belfield CR, Levin HM. The return on investment for improving California’s high school graduation rate. California Dropout Research Project Report #2. Santa Barbara (CA): University of California; 2007.

Belfield CR. The costs of inadequate education for New York State (Policy Paper). Albany (NY): University at Albany, State University of New York; 2007.

Belfield CR, Levin HM, Rosen R. The economic value of opportunity youth. Washington (DC): Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council for Community Solutions; 2012.

Bloom D. LEAP: Interim Findings on a Welfare Initiative To Improve School Attendance among Teenage Parents. Ohio’s Learning, Earning, and Parenting Program; 1993.

Bloom HS. The benefits and costs of JTPA Title II-A programs. Key findings from the National Job Training Partnership Act study. J Human Resources 1997;32(3):549-76.

Bloom HS, Thompson SL, Unterman R. Transforming the high school experience. New York (NY): MDRC; 2010.

Bloom HS, Unterman R. Sustained positive effects on graduation rates produced by New York City’s small public high schools of choice. Policy brief. New York (NY): MDRC; 2012.

Cardenas J, Montecel M, Supik J, Harris R. The Coca-Cola valued youth program: dropout prevention strategies for at-risk students. Texas Researcher 1992;3:111-30.

Catterall JS. On the social costs of dropping out of school. High School J 1987;71(1):19-30.

Dearden L, Emmerson C, Frayne C, Meghir C. Conditional cash transfers and school dropout rates. J Human Resources 2009;44(4):827-57.

Dynarski M, Gleason P, Rangarajan A, Wood RG. Impacts of dropout prevention programs: Final report. Princeton (NJ): Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.; 1998.

Eggert LL, Seyi CD, Nicholas LJ. Effects of a school-based prevention program for potential high school dropouts and drug abusers. Subst Use Misuse 1990;25(7):773-801.

Gardner MK. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of three different GED preparation programs. In. Dissertation Abstracts Internationa: Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas; 2001.

Hankivsky O. Cost estimates of dropping out of high school in Canada. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Learning; 2008.

Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Kosterman R, Abbott R, Hill KG. Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999;153(3):226-34.

Institute of Education Sciences, What Works Clearinghouse. High school redirection. Washington (DC): U. S. Department of Education; 2007.

Levin HM, Belfield C, Hollands F, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of interventions that improve high school completion. New York (NY): Center for Benefit-Cost Studies of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University; 2012.

Levin H, Belfield C, Muennig P, Rouse C. The costs and benefits of an excellent education for all of America’s children. New York (NY): Teachers College, Columbia University; 2007.

Lewis D, Terrell D, Guin C. The financial and social costs of dropping out of high school (Thesis). Hammond (LA): Southeastern Louisiana University; 2005.

Long D, Gueron JM, Wood RG, Fisher R, Fellerath V. LEAP: Three-year impacts of Ohio’s welfare initiative to improve school attendance among teenage parents. New York (NY). Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; 1996.

Myers D, Olsen R, Seftor N, Young J, Tuttle C. The impacts of regular Upward Bound: Results from the third follow-up data collection. U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, Policy and Program Studies Service; 2004.

Olsen R, Seftor N, Silva T, Myers D, DesRoches D, Young J. Upward Bound Math-Science Program: Description and interim impact estimates. Washington (DC): U.S. Department of Education; 2007.

Quint J. Project redirection: Making and measuring a difference. Evaluation and Program Planning 1991;14(1):75-86.

Schirm A, Stuart E, McKie A. The Quantum Opportunity Program demonstration: final impacts. Princeton (NJ): Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.; 2006.

Solomon R, Liefeld C. Effectiveness of a family support center approach to adolescent mothers: Repeat pregnancy and school dropout rates. Fam Relat 1998;47(2):139-44.

Stern D, Dayton C, Paik I-W, Weisberg A. Benefits and costs of dropout prevention in a high school program combining academic and vocational education: third-year results from replications of the California Peninsula Academies. Educ Eval Policy Anal 1989;11(4):405-16.

Logic Model:

• Promoting Health Equity Through Education Programs and Policies

The Community Preventive Services Task Force finding is based on evidence from an existing meta-analysis published in 2011 (Wilson et al., 167 studies, search period 1985- 2010/11) and an updated search for newer studies (10 studies, search period January 2010- August 2012).

The full search strategy from the Wilson et al. 2011 review is available online: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535219.pdf [PDF – 636 kB] .

Effectiveness Review

For the updated review, the following databases were searched: ERIC, National Education Association (NEA) website, NTIS, PsycINFO, PubMed, Social Care Online, Theses Canada, and Web of Science. The databases searched covered publications in medical and social sciences, behavioral sciences, and education. The types of documents retrieved by the search included journal articles, books, book chapters, reports, conference papers, and theses.

Search terms and search strategies were adjusted to each database, based on controlled and uncontrolled vocabularies and search software. The review team also searched reference lists found in studies included from the updated search period. Once the literature search was completed, Community Guide staff reviewed the citations using a set of pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria to narrow down the publications to be reviewed.

Studies were included if they:

• Were primary research, published or unpublished
• Were published in English
• Assessed an intervention implemented in a high-income country
• Met minimum quality criteria for study design and execution; the study design had to include a comparison (control) population and perform randomization, matching, or control for baseline features
• Reported outcomes related to high school completion/withdrawal or dropout, GED attainment, enrollment
• Evaluated an intervention meeting the definition of a high school completion program
• Evaluated a study population of K-12 students at risk for high school non-completion (low income, racial or ethnic minority, pregnant or teen parent, or otherwise noted by author as at risk for non-completion)

Studies were not included if they:

• Evaluated an exclusively special population (e.g., with mental disability)
• Were published or made publically available before January, 2010.

Search Terms [ * = truncation ]

First set – all search terms in first set combined by “OR”

ABSENCE* *

ABSENTEEISM

ALTERNATIVE HIGH SCHOOL*

ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL*

CAREER ACADEMIES

CAREER ACADEMY

CHRONIC NONATTENDANCE

CHRONIC NONATTENDANCE

CHRONIC SCHOOL ABSENCE* *

COMPLET* SCHOOL*

CONTINUATION STUDENT* *

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL*

CONTINUATION EDUCATION

CONTINUATION STUDIES

DROP* OUT

DROP* OUT SCHOOL* *

DROP* OUT* *

DROPOUT PREVENTION

DROPOUT* *

FINISH* SCHOOL

FINISH* HIGH SCHOOL

FINISH* SECONDARY SCHOOL

FINISH* MIDDLE SCHOOL

FINISH* JUNIOR HIGH

GED

GENERAL EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

GRADE PROMOTION*

GRADE RETENTION

GRADUATION RATE* *

GRADUATION STATUS

GRADUATION SUCCESS

GRADUATION REQUIREMENT* *

HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA* *

HIGH SCHOOL EQUIVALENCY

PREVENT* DROPOUT* *

PREVENT* DROPOUT* *

PREVENT* DROP*OUT* *

SCHOOL ATTAINMENT

SCHOOL COMPLETION

SCHOOL FAILURE* *

SCHOOL LEAVER* *

SCHOOL NONATTENDANCE

SCHOOL REFUSAL

SCHOOL REFUSER* *

TRUANCY

AND

Second set all search terms in second set combined by “OR”

ANALYS*

ANALYSES

ANALYSIS

ANALYZ*

ASSESS*

BETTER*

COUNSEL*

DECREAS*

EFFECT*

EFFICAC*

EVALUAT*

EXPERIMENT*

FAIL*

FEASIB*

GAIN*

IMPACT*

IMPROV*

INCREAS*

INTERVEN*

MEASURES

OUTCOME* *

PILOT*

PREVENT*

PROGRAM EVALUATION* *

PROGRAM*

PROJECT*

RANDOM*

RCT

REPLICABLE

REPLICAT*

RESULT*

SUCCEED*

SUCCESS*

SUMMATIVE

TREATMENT* *

TRIAL*

VALID*

List of databases searched, URL, dates, covered, and number of hits in each database

Database	Dates covered by database	# Hits	Date searched
ERIC Dialog File 1 http://www.dialogclassic.com	1966-2012	6763	8/28/12
National Education Association NEA web site http://www.nea.org	1970-2012	82	8/31/12
NTIS database http://www.ntis.org	1960-2012	138	8/22/12
PsycINFO (OVID) http://www.ovid.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/ProductDisplay?storeId=13051&catalogId=13151&langId=-1&partNumber=Prod-139	1806-2012	3180	8/28/12
PubMed NLM http://pubmed.gov	1809-2012	242	8/20/12
Social Care Online Database http://www.scie-socialcareonline.org.uk/	1980-2012	317	8/23/12
Theses Canada http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/thesescanada/index-e.html	1980-2012	46	8/23/12
Web of Science SCI/SSCI WoS http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/science/science_products/a-z/web_of_science/	1980-2012	3600	8/23/12

Search Strategies

ERIC – Educational Resources Information Center Dialog File 1

Set 1 searched in title words and descriptors (TI, DE).

? = truncation symbol

() = adjacency

Set 1 (All terms in set 1 “OR’ed” together)

ABSENCE? ?

ABSENTEEISM

ALTERNATIVE()HIGH()SCHOOL?

ALTERNATIVE()SCHOOL?

CAREER()ACADEMIES

CAREER()ACADEMY

CHRONIC()NONATTENDANCE

CHRONIC()SCHOOL()ABSENCE? ?

COMPLET?(2N)SCHOOL?

CONTINUATION()STUDENT?

CONTINUATION()HIGH()SCHOOL?

CONTINUATION()EDUCATION

CONTINUATION()STUDIES

DROP?()OUT

DROP?OUT (2N) SCHOOL? ?

DROP?()OUT? ?

DROPOUT()PREVENTION

DROPOUT? ?

FINISH?()SCHOOL

FINISH?()HIGH SCHOOL

FINISH?()SECONDARY SCHOOL

FINISH?()MIDDLE SCHOOL

FINISH?()JUNIOR HIGH

GED

GENERAL()EDUCATIONAL()DEVELOPMENT

GRADE()PROMOTION?

GRADE()RETENTION

GRADUATION()RATE? ?

GRADUATION()STATUS

GRADUATION()SUCCESS

GRADUATION()REQUIREMENT? ?

HIGH()SCHOOL()DIPLOMA? ?

HIGH()SCHOOL()EQUIVALENCY

PREVENT?()DROPOUT? ?

PREVENT?(3N) (DROPOUT? ? OR DROP?OUT? ?)

SCHOOL()ATTAINMENT

SCHOOL()COMPLETION

SCHOOL()FAILURE? ?

SCHOOL()LEAVER? ?

SCHOOL()NONATTENDANCE

SCHOOL()REFUSAL

SCHOOL()REFUSER? ?

TRUANCY

AND

Set 2 Searched in title words and descriptors TI,DE.

Set 2 (All terms in Set 2 “OR’ed” together)

ANALYS?

ANALYSES

ANALYSIS

ANALYZ?

ASSESS?

BETTER?

COUNSEL?

DECREAS?

EFFECT?

EFFICAC?

EVALUAT?

EXPERIMENT?

FAIL?

FEASIB?

GAIN?

IMPACT?

IMPROV?

INCREAS?

INTERVEN?

MEASURES

OUTCOME? ?

PILOT?

PREVENT?

PROGRAM()EVALUATION?

PROGRAM?

PROJECT?

RANDOM?

RCT

REPLICABLE

REPLICAT?

RESULT?

SUCCEED?

SUCCESS?

SUMMATIVE

TREATMENT? ?

TRIAL?

VALID?

NOT

Set 3 (All terms in Set 3 “OR’ed” together)

ABUSE?

AFGHANISTAN

AFRICA

ALGERIA

ANOREXIA

ANTIDEPRESSANT? ?

ANTIEPILEPTIC

ARGENTINA

AUTIS?

BANGLADESH

BELIZE

BORDERLINE()PERSONALITY

BOTSWANA

BRASIL

BRAZIL

BULIMIA

BUPRENORPHINE

BURKINA

BURMA

CAMBODIA

CAMEROON

CANCER

CHAD

CHILE

CHINA

CHRONIC()ILLNESS?

COLLEGE()COURSE?

COLLEGE()STUDENT? ?

COLLEGE? ?

COLOMBIA

COMIPRAMINE

CONGO

COTE D’IVOIRE

DEPRESSION

DEPRESSIVE()DISORDER? ?

DEVELOPING()COUNTR?

DEVELOPING()WORLD

DOCTORAL

DOMINICAN()REPUBLIC

EEG

EGYPT

EMPLOYEE()ABSENTEEISM

EPILEP?

FIBROMYALGIA

GHANA

GRADUATE()SCHOOL? ?

GRADUATE()LEVEL()SCHOOL?

GRADUATE()LEVEL()STUDENT? ?

GUATEMALA

HAITI

HEROIN

HIGHER()EDUCATION

HIV

INDIA

INDONESIA

INMATE? ?

INSOMNIA

IRAN

IRAQ

IVORY()COAST

KAZAKHASTAN

KENYA

LIBYA

LOW ?()INCOME()COUNTR?

MADAGASCAR

MALARIA

MALAWI

MALAYSIA

MALI

MASSAGE

MAURITANIA

MENTAL?()RETARD?

METHADONE

MONGOLIA

MOROCCO

MOZAMBIQUE

MYANMAR

NAMIBIA

NEW GUINEA

NIGER

NIGERIA

NORTH KOREA

OBESE

OBESITY

OBSESSIVE()COMPULSIVE

OCD

OLANZAPINE

PAKISTAN

PAROXETINE

PHILIPPINES

POOR()COUNTR?

POST()SECONDARY

PSYCHOSIS

PSYCHOTIC

PTSD

RHODESIA

RISPERIDONE

RUSSIA

SCHIZOPHRENIA

SENEGAL

SOMALIA

SPINAL()CORD()INJUR?

SUDAN

TANZANIA

THAILAND

THIRD WORLD

TOURETTE?

TRAUMATIC()BRAIN()INJUR?

TREATMENT()DROPOUT? ?

TUBERCULOSIS

TUNISIA

UGANDA

UNDERGRADUATE? ?

UNIVERSIT?

UNIVERSITY()COURSE? ?

UNIVERSITY()STUDENT? ?

UZBEKISTAN

VENEZUELA

VIETNAM

YEMEN

ZAMBIA

(S1 and S2) NOT S3

National Education Association

[Note: each line indicates a separate search in this database.]

dropout prevention

dropout prevention nea

dropout prevention articles

dropout prevention school

dropout prevention education

dropout prevention students

dropout prevention high school

NTIS

[Note: each line indicates a separate search in this database.]

school leavers

school attendance

truancy

school completion

school dropout

school dropouts

dropping out of high school

dropped out of high school

dropout prevention

preventing dropping out

PsycINFO OVID

# Searches

1 school dropouts.mp. or exp School Dropouts/

2 exp Potential Dropouts/

3 dropout-prevention.mp.

4 school-dropout*.mp.

5 high school dropout.mp.

6 school completion.mp.

7 school leaver.mp. or exp School Leavers/

8 school refusal.mp. or exp School Refusal/

9 high school equivalency.mp.

10 “GED recipients”.id.

11 GED.mp.

12 complet*-school*.mp.

13 alternative high school.mp.

14 career academy.mp.

15 career academies.mp.

16 exp School Refusal/ or school refuser.mp.

17 *”School Graduation”/

18 dropout* or drop*-out*.ti. and school*.mp.

19 school-leaver*.mp.

20 alternative-high-school*.mp.

21 school-refuser*.mp.

22 OR/1-21

23 randomized.mp.

24 trial.mp.

25 pilot.mp.

26 intervention.mp. or exp Response to Intervention/ or exp School Based Intervention/ or exp Early Intervention/ or exp Intervention/

27 program.mp. or exp Program Development/ or exp Educational Program Planning/ or exp Program Evaluation/

28 exp Mental Health Program Evaluation/ or exp Evaluation Criteria/ or exp Evaluation/ or exp Treatment Effectiveness Evaluation/ or evaluation.mp.

29 exp Protective Factors/ or protective.mp. or factor*.mp.

30 summative.mp.

31 effective.mp.

32 efficacy.mp.

33 program.mp.

34 (effect* or program* or efficac* or interven* or pilot or pilots or trials or trial).mp.

35 (prevent*-school-dropout* or prevent*-dropping-out or prevent*-high-school-dropout*).mp.

36 OR/23-35

37 (Chinese or Farsi Iranian or Hebrew or Hindi or Japanese or Korean or Malaysian or Urdu).lg.

38 (China or Pakistan or Bangladesh or India or South-Africa or Botswana or Zimbabwe or Rhodesia or Namibia or Egypt or Morocco or Tunisia or Algeria or Libya or Chad or Burundi or Mali or Malawi or Somalia or Ivory-Coast or Ghana or Uganda or Chile or Argentina or Brazil or Brasil or Colombia or Venezuela or Haiti or Jamaica or Thailand or Madagascar or Sri-Lanka or Vietnam or Cambodia or Myanmar or New-Guinea).mp.

39 37 or 38

40 (22 and 36) not 39

PubMed NLM

#1 [All terms in Set #1 “OR’ed”]

alternative high school

alternative high school student

alternative high school students

alternative high school youth

alternative high schools

career academics

career academies

career academy

chronic absence

chronic absenteeism

drop out

drop outs

dropout

dropout prevention

dropouts

dropped out

dropping out

educational attainment

educational attainments

educational attendance

educational attitudes

ged

general equivalency diploma

grade promotion

grade retention

graduation rate

graduation rates

graduation requirement

graduation requirements

graduation status

graduation success

high school

high school diploma

high school diploma ged

high school diplomas

high school dropout

high school dropout rate

high school dropout rates

high school dropouts

high school equivalency

high school equivalency diploma

high school graduate

high school graduates

high school graduation

high schooler

high schoolers

high schoolgirls

high schooling

high schools

junior high

middle school

middle schoolchildren

middle schoolers

middle schooling

middle school’s

middle schools

nonattendance

reform school

reform schools

school absence

school absenteeism

school attendance

school completion

school dropout

school dropout ideation

school dropout prevention

school dropout rate

school dropout rates

school dropouts

school enrollment

school enrollments

school enrolment

school failure

school failures

school graduation

school nonattendance

school refusal

school refusals

school refuser

school refusers

school refusing

secondary school

secondary schooling

secondary schools

Student Dropouts[Mesh]

truancy

AND

Set #2 [All terms in Set #2 “Or’ed”]

clinical trial

clinical trials

counsel

counseling

counselling

counsels

effective

effectiveness

efficacious

efficacy

evaluation

evaluations

experiment

experimental

experiments

guidance

intervention

interventions

pilot

prevent

preventable

prevented

preventing

prevention

program*

program effect

program effectiveness

program effects

program efficacy

program evaluation

program evaluations

programming

programs

quantitatively

quasi experiment

quasi experimental

quasi experiments

quasiexperiment

quasiexperimental

quasiexperiments

random

randomise

randomised

randomising

randomiz*

randomizable

randomising

randomiz*

randomizable

randomization

randomized

randomizing

rct

social programme

social programmes

social programming

social programs

summative

treatment effect

treatment effective

treatment effectively prevents

treatment effectively reduces

treatment effectiveness

treatment effects

treatment efficacies

treatment efficacy

treatment outcome

treatment outcomes

trial

trials

youth program

youth programmes

youth programming

youth programs

youth project

youth projects

NOT

Set #3 [All terms in Set #3 “OR’ed]

AFGHANISTAN

AFRICA

ALGERIA

ANOREXIA

ANTIDEPRESSANT*

ANTIEPILEPTIC*

ARGENTINA

AUTIS*

BANGLADESH

BELIZE

BORDERLINE PERSONALITY

BOTSWANA

BRASIL

BRAZIL

BULIMIA

BUPRENORPHINE

BURKINA

BURMA

CAMBODIA

CAMEROON

CANCER*

CHAD

CHILE

CHINA

CHRONIC ILLNESS*

COLLEGE COURSE*

COLLEGE STUDENT*

COLLEGE*

COLOMBIA

COMIPRAMINE

CONGO

COTEDIVOIRE

DEPRESSION

DEPRESSIVE DISORDER*

DEVELOPING COUNTR*

DEVELOPING WORLD

DOCTORAL

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

EEG

EGYPT

EMPLOYEE ABSENTEEISM

EPILEP*

FIBROMYALGIA

GHANA

GRADUATE SCHOOL*

GRADUATE LEVEL SCHOOL*

GRADUATE LEVEL STUDENT*

GUATEMALA

HAITI

HEROIN

HIGHER EDUCATION

HIV

INDIA

INDONESIA

INMATE*

INSOMNIA

IRAN

IRAQ

IVORY COAST

KAZAKHASTAN

KENYA

LIBYA

LOW INCOME COUNTR*

MADAGASCAR

MALARIA

MALAWI

MALAYSIA

MALI

MASSAGE

MAURITANIA

MENTAL* RETARD*

METHADONE

MONGOLIA

MOROCCO

MOZAMBIQUE

MYANMAR

NAMIBIA

NEW GUINEA

NIGER

NIGERIA

NORTH KOREA

OBESE

OBESITY

OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE

OCD

OLANZAPINE

PAKISTAN

PAROXETINE

PHILIPPINES

POOR COUNTR*

POST SECONDARY

PSYCHOSIS

PSYCHOTIC

PTSD

RHODESIA

RISPERIDONE

RUSSIA

SCHIZOPHRENIA

SENEGAL

SOMALIA

SPINAL CORD INJUR*

SUDAN

TANZANIA

THAILAND

THIRD WORLD

TOURETTE

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJUR*

TREATMENT DROPOUT*

TUBERCULOSIS

TUNISIA

UGANDA

UNDERGRADUATE*

UNIVERSIT*

UZBEKISTAN

VENEZUELA

VIETNAM

YEMEN

ZAMBIA

(#1 AND #2) NOT #3

Social Care Online Database

[Note: each line indicates a separate search in this database.]

“school leavers”

Topic=school attendance

Topic=truancy

“school completion”

“school dropout”

“school dropouts”

dropping out of high school

dropped out of high school

dropout prevention

preventing dropping out

freetext “dropouts” and freetext “school”

Theses Canada

[Note: each line indicates a separate search in this database.]

dropouts

school and completion

graduation and rates

Web of Science

Science Citation Index Expanded :

8,300 major journals across 150 disciplines 1980 to present.

Social Sciences Citation Index :

2,697 journals across 55 social science disciplines, as well as selected items from 3,500 of the world’s leading scientific and technical journals 1980 to present.

TI=Title -Searches for terms in the title of the publication only

TS=Topic -Searches for topic terms in the following fields within a record.

• Title
• Abstract
• Author Keyword
• Keywords Plus

Set 1 (all terms “OR’ed”)

TS=(“school failure” OR “high school diploma*” OR “school attendance” OR truancy OR “school nonattendance” OR “graduation rate*” OR “grade retention*” OR “grade promotion*” OR “high school equivalency” OR “school absence*” OR “alternative high school*” OR “dropping out of school “OR “school completion” OR “school refusal” OR “school dropout*” OR “school drop out*” OR “finish* school” OR “finish* high school” OR “complete* school” OR “complete* high school” OR “dropping out of school” OR “dropped out of school” OR “high school dropouts” OR “school leaver*” OR “school completion” OR “school disengagement” OR “school attainment” )

OR

TS=(“dropout prevention*” or “prevent* dropout” or “prevent* dropping out”) AND TS=school*

OR

TS= ged AND TS=(“general educational development” OR school* or “drop* out*” OR dropout* OR student*)

OR

TI=complet* and TI=school*

AND

Set 2 (all terms OR’ed)

TS=(protective or intervention* or quantitative or program* or evaluat* or random* or prevent* or project* or pilot or counseling or counselling or counselor* or guidance or rct or trial or trials or experiment* or outcome* or effect* or improv* or decreas* or increas* or approach* or psychoeducational or extracurricular or tutor* or “after school” or dropout prevention”)

NOT

Set 3 (all terms OR’ed)

Refined by: [excluding] Languages= HEBREW OR JAPANESE AND [excluding] Countries/Territories= ARGENTINA OR ZAMBIA OR BENIN OR TANZANIA OR BOTSWANA OR ZIMBABWE OR CONGO OR ECUADOR OR JAMAICA OR GHANA OR GUINEA BISSAU OR UGANDA OR JORDAN OR BRAZIL OR EGYPT OR PHILIPPINES OR MALAYSIA OR THAILAND OR SUDAN OR ISRAEL OR ETHIOPIA OR YEMEN OR MEXICO OR ALBANIA OR ROMANIA OR BULGARIA OR COSTA RICA OR SRI LANKA OR BANGLADESH OR BURKINA FASO OR GAMBIA OR INDIA OR CAMEROON OR GUINEA OR PEOPLES R CHINA OR COLOMBIA OR HONDURAS OR LEBANON OR TAIWAN OR MALAWI OR INDONESIA OR MALI OR LAOS OR PAKISTAN OR CROATIA OR PERU OR MALAGASY REPUBL OR KENYA OR TUNISIA OR NIGERIA OR URUGUAY OR CHILE OR VENEZUELA OR IRAN OR VIETNAM OR W IND ASSOC ST OR RUSSIA OR TAIWAN OR TANZANIA OR BOSNIA HERCEG OR INDIA OR SOUTH AFRICA OR NAMIBIA OR NIGERIA OR OMAN OR UGANDA OR PEOPLES R CHINA OR GHANA OR CHILE OR NIGERIA OR MAURITIUS OR COLOMBIA OR PAKISTAN OR MEXICO OR PHILIPPINES OR REP OF GEORGIA OR ARGENTINA OR RUSSIA OR IRAN OR SEYCHELLES OR BRAZIL OR LEBANON OR CROATIA OR SLOVAKIA OR VENEZUELA OR AFGHANISTAN OR UGANDA OR BAHRAIN

NOT TI=”medical school*” OR TI=”nursing school*”

(#1 AND #2) NOT #3

Economic Review

No content is available for this section.

Wilson SJ, Tanner-Smith EE, Lipsey MW, Steinka-Fry K, Morrison J. Dropout prevention and intervention programs: Effects on school completion and dropout among school-aged children and youth. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2011. Available at URL: https://www.campbellcollaboration.org/better-evidence/dropout-prevention-intervention-programmes.html 

The following considerations are drawn from studies included in the evidence review, the broader literature, and expert opinion.

Common challenges to program implementation include the following:

• Attendance, which is often especially low among those most in need
• Noncompliance with program requirements
• Inadequate staff training and high turnover

Attendance and monitoring programs that deny family benefits when students fail to attend school may raise ethical concerns. They also can make it more difficult for families to send students to school if, for example, students need to work to make up for the loss of family assistance.

Healthy People 2030

Healthy People 2030 includes the following objectives related to this CPSTF recommendation.

• Increase the proportion of high school students who graduate in 4 years — AH‑08
• Increase the proportion of high school graduates in college the October after graduating — SDOH‑06